Dic 6 2018
Cómo superar el miedo al fracaso en competición

Entre las muchas emociones elicitadas por entornos competitivos, el miedo al fracaso es el constructo que más atenciones ha recibido. En literatura, se ha conceptualizado como «una tendencia disposicional a experimentar aprehensión y ansiedad en situaciones de evaluación porque los individuos han aprendido que el fracaso está asociado a consecuencias aversivas» (Conroy y Elliot, 2004).

Una vez se definió el constructo, el siguiente paso era determinar la causalidad que explica su aparición y la naturaleza de su influencia sobre el comportamiento.

miedo al fracaso
Modelo Jerárquico adaptado de Conroy y Elliot (2004)

 

En lo que se refiere al proceso que genera este miedo al fracaso, existe un modelo jerárquico que postula que éste surge cuando el sujeto se enfrenta a una situación que supone alguna suerte de evaluación. Esta apreciación hace que el individuo active esquemas cognitivos sobre las consecuencias aversivas del fracaso que será lo que, en última instancia, genere ese miedo (Conroy y Elliot, 2004).

Las consecuencias de ese miedo difieren de unos a otros y – para variar – se reduce a las diferencias individuales. Entonces, ¿cómo manejo mi temor al fracaso cuando la exigencia es elevada? Sólo puedes aprender si te expones deliberadamente al error.

Hay razones para creer que esto es valioso para el rendimiento desde un punto de vista cognitivo y conductual. En el plano cognitivo, es fundamental que averigues cómo respondes a tus emociones, la naturaleza de tu autodiálogo y tus estrategias de afrontamiento. En un sentido más conductual, una exposición repetida conseguirá disminuir la intensidad de tu respuesta de miedo, facilitando la gestión emocional. 

“Eres lo que haces” 

Durante los años 60, hubo un fuerte interés hacia los aspectos conductuales que subyacen a la acción humana. El conductismo consideraba la conducta como algo completamente dependiente del refuerzo o el castigo que proporciona el entorno. Esta rama de la psicología nos aporta información muy valiosa como vimos en otro artículo.

En lo relativo al miedo al fracaso, también ha probado ser de utilidad. Conroy y Elliot (2004) consideraron el miedo al fracaso y la ansiedad rasgo de evaluación como “constructos conceptualmente equivalentes”, lo que me lleva a pensar que si la técnica de exposición funciona con la ansiedad, puede funcionar también con el miedo al fracaso (para más sobre esto, visita este artículo)

“Veo las cosas como soy, no como son”

En contraste, la Psicología Cognitiva irrumpió en la escena durante los 70 para llevarse consigo a mi corazón. Soy una fan empedernida de los aspectos cognitivos que dominan el comportamiento e, inevitablemente, recurro a estos factores cuando considero la causación de la conducta humana.

Para aprender a gestionar el temor al fracaso, podemos servirnos de la teoría cognitiva-motivacional-relacional desarrollada por Richard Lazarus, un autor de gran renombre dada su aportación al campo de las emociones. Esta teoría establece que la respuesta emocional actúa a tres niveles: experiencia subjetiva, acciones o impulsos para actuar; y cambios fisiológicos (Lazarus, 2000).

El marco de trabajo de Lazarus sentó las bases para que Conroy y Elliot desarrollaran el modelo jerárquico que consideraba el miedo al fracaso como un producto de los esquemas cognitivos que contenían consecuencias aversivas asociadas al fracaso (decepcionar a seres queridos, sentimientos de vergüenza, disminución de autoestima, perder el interés de seres queridos, etc.)

De ese modelo también se deriva la noción de que este temor al fallo estaba directamente relacionado con la ansiedad-rasgo de evaluación. Los individuos que generalmente temen cualquier forma de evaluación externa – situaciones en la que el comportamiento del sujeto se somete a juicio – tenderán a temer al fallo.

¿Cómo disminuir el miedo al fracaso?

La consecuencia más grave de este temor al fracaso es que esa respuesta emocional afectará a tres procesos clave en el rendimiento deportivo: motivación, concentración y atención. Disminuirá nuestra motivación frente a la realización de la tarea y nuestra capacidad atencional y de concentración se ver

Como solución, Lazarus (2000) propone que los atletas dediquen tiempo a analizar las emociones que experimentan durante la competición así como la vulnerabilidad que representa para ellos y las estrategias de afrontamiento que emplean. ¿Por qué? Es sencillo. Una estrategia de afrontamiento eficiente durante una competición cuando las cosas no salen como uno planea, te permitirá “volver a motivarte y, por ende, ser capaz de atender y concentrarte de forma efectiva para mostrar tu nivel de excelencia” (Lazarus, 2000).

¿Qué mecanismos de afrontamiento son necesarios para blindarse frente a autodiálogo negativo? Eso es algo que sólo puede responderse desde dentro. Los competidores deben enfrentarse a situaciones en las que experimentan emociones negativas para practicar estrategias de afrontamiento (para más sobre el afrontamiento, visita este artículo) que les alejen de acciones contraproducentes que aparecen en respuesta a ese afecto negativo. 

miedo a fracasar

El fracaso es tan importante como el logro

Esto es sólo una recomendación general (no sólo aplicable al deporte). El fracaso juega un papel fundamental en la vida de todos y permanecerá por siempre. Muchas veces, el fracaso se asociará a una tarea que no es relevante para nuestras metas de realización pero habrá veces en que afecte a la forma en que nos percibimos a nosotros mismos y puede llevarnos a una crisis de identidad. Es importante que aprendamos a identificar y afrontar estas situaciones para seguir adelante sin perdernos en el proceso. No temas caerte…¡sino a no saber levantarte!

 

Conroy, D. E., & Elliot, A. J. (2004). Fear of failure and achievement goals in sport: Addressing the issue of the chicken and the egg. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 17(3), 271-285.
 Lazarus, R. S. (2000). How emotions influence performance in competitive sports. The sport psychologist, 14(3), 229-252.
Desiree Mejia-Naranjo 0 Comentarios
Dic 5 2018
How to overcome fear of failure in competition

Among the many emotions that are elicited by competitive environments, fear of failure is a construct that has received most attention. In literature, it has been conceptualized as «a dispositional tendency to experience apprehension and anxiety in evaluative situations because individuals have learned that failure is associated with aversive consequences» (Conroy & Elliot, 2004). Once the construct was defined, it was only logical to determine the causality that explains its appearance and the nature of its influence on behavior.

fear of failure in sports
Hierarchical Model adapted from Lazarus (1991); Conroy & Elliot (2004).

Regarding the process that generates fear of failure, there is a hierarchical model that posits that it results when the subject is faced with a situation that involves some form of evaluation. The appraisal of this situation facilitates the activation of cognitive schemas about aversive consequences of failing, which generates fear of failure (Conroy & Elliot, 2004).

In regards to CrossFit, I’ve always heard some athletes say that failure is a valuable learning weapon, and this is absolutely true; but what about those who have developed fear of failure? In hopes of keeping positive sensations in training or competition, they usually shy away from barging into the unknown if they aren’t certain of their proficiency. As a result, they usually run a more conservative race during competition. Staying in your own lane may seem appealing but it’s not always the smartest thing to do. Patrick Vellner is well-known for his athletic prowess in the «sport of fitness» and strongly defends field awareness; which is, keeping a close eye on your competition during the event to monitor your pace so you can choose the right moment to push or cruise. But this must be done cautiously because the plan may backfire.

Take for example Jordan Troyan’s overhead squat event at the 2014 Games. He failed all three attempts and, during an interview later on, he said he had become frightened once he saw the weights other athletes were putting up. Obviously I don’t know what his game plan was prior to the event and I’m going out on a limb here but I wonder if he decided to start off with a lift he was absolutely confident with.

atychiphobia

There is a time and place to experience fear in an event. And the consequences fear may have on us come down to inter-individual differences (yet again). So, how do I manage fear of failure when stakes are high? You can only learn by deliberately exposing yourself to failure. There are reasons to believe this is valuable for performance from a cognitive and behavioural point of view. In the cognitive sense, it is imperative that you figure out how you respond to your emotions, the nature of your self-statements and your go-to coping mechanisms (Lazarus, 2000). On a more behavioral level, repeated exposition will ultimately decrease the intensity of your fear response, making it easier to manage your emotion. Although this last element hasn’t be researched  per se, it’s basically a hunch of mine which I’ll get into later on.

«You are what you do»

During the 60s there was a strong interest towards the behavioural aspects underlying human action. Behaviorism considered action as completely dependent on reward or punishment provided by the environment. Granted this consideration goes a little too far for my personal taste, there are many findings from this period that have proven to be very valid when understanding the nature of human behavior.

These studies not only considered the causal factors of behavior but also modification techniques. This is how Behavior Modification was born. Among these techniques there is one in particular that has always peaked my interest: exposition. It is used in situations where the subject experiences intense levels of anxiety and has developed a tendency to escape or avoid the stimulus.

As the name suggests, the exposition technique consists of exposing the subject to the feared stimulus repeatedly and for a long period of time; just enough for anxiety to peak and then decrease towards reasonable levels. I won’t really get into the real technical stuff regarding exposition but I have always wondered if it can be done at a more basic level; that is, in shorter periods of time and regarding fear of failure and not so much anxiety (because anxiety and fear are not the same thing, but that’s not today’s subject).

Conroy & Elliot (2004) considered fear of failure and trait test anxiety to be «conceptually equivalent constructs» which leads me to believe that if exposition works with anxiety, it could work with fear of failure as well. The premise for this technique is that the subject has developed such an intense fear of the stimulus at hand (failure in the case) that she or he avoids or escapes the situation. This behavior allows for an immediate sense of relief which basically tells the brain: «hey, if we get the hell out of here, we feel a lot better». The brain gets the message and decides to predetermine this response for future similar events. The whole point of exposition is to cut this pattern, obligating the subject to face the feared stimulus, allowing themselves to experience the anxiety for as long as necessary in order for the intensity of the anxiety to decrease. This will teach the brain that the emotional response derived from the situation will ultimately be of calmness. Naturally this technique calles for numerous long sessions and it doesn’t guarantee anxiety will be forever lost; but it will push it towards a a more manageable level.

«I see things how I am, not how they are»

In contrast, Cognitive Psychology erupted on the scene in the 70s to take my heart along with it. I am a huge fan of the cognitive aspects that rule behavior and, inevitably, turn to these factors when considering the causation of human action.

In relation to fear of failure, Richard Lazarus, an author who has received great renown given his contribution to the field of emotion, developed a cognitive-motivational-relational theory. This theory established that emotional response acts upon three levels: subjective experience, actions or impulses to act and physiological changes and that this triple response must include the cognitive, motivational and relational variables that linger beneath it and ultimately cause it (Lazarus, 2000).

Lazarus’ frame of work set the stage for Conroy and Elliot to develop the hierarchical model I previously mentioned, that considered fear of failure to be a byproduct of cognitive schemas that contained the aversive consequences of failure (disappointing important others, shame and belittlement, decrease in self-esteem, losing important others’ interest, etc…). Also, they established that this fear of failure was directly related to trait test anxiety; which basically means that individuals who generally fear any form of external evaluation – situations where their behavior is subject to judgement – will necessarily tend towards fear of failure.

From this cognitive standpoint, we know that competition is affected by three pivotal aspects: motivation, concentration and attention. Fear of failure leads to negative self-talk and this will take hold of our attentional resources, derail our concentration and diminish our motivation.

As a solution, Lazarus (2000) proposes that athletes take time to analyze the emotions they feel during competition as well as their vulnerability to them and coping strategies. Why? Simple. An efficient coping strategy during competition when things aren’t go as planned will allow you to «become re-motivated and, thereby, capable of attending and concentrating effectively to display their typically high standard of excellence» (Lazarus, 2000).

What coping skills are needed to overcome destructive self-statements? That’s something that can only be answered from within. Competitors must be faced with situations in which they experience negative emotions in order to «practice» coping strategies that lead them away from counterproductive actions that appear in response to those negative emotions. We’ll get into the different types of coping strategies soon enough…

Failure is just as important as achievement

This is just a general recommendation (not only applicable to sports). Failure plays a huge role in everyone’s lives and will remain present. Many times failure will be associated to a task that isn’t relevant in relation to our realization goals but other times it will affect the way we perceive ourselves and it may lead to an existential crisis. It’s important that we learn to identify and cope with these situations in order to move on without losing ourselves in the process. Don’t fear failure…fear not knowing how to get up!

Conroy, D. E., & Elliot, A. J. (2004). Fear of failure and achievement goals in sport: Addressing the issue of the chicken and the egg. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 17(3), 271-285.

Lazarus, R. S. (2000). How emotions influence performance in competitive sports. The sport psychologist, 14(3), 229-252.

Desiree Mejia-Naranjo 0 Comentarios
Nov 28 2018
The dos and don’ts of inner dialogue

How many thoughts do we produce on a daily basis? 100? 300,000? The number 70,000 has been roaming around the scene for a while but it can’t be scientifically proven due to the experimental challenges that arise. How can you measure something as intangible and generally inaccessible as human thought?

self talk

Self-talk generates a million unanswered questions. What we do know is that we think a lot. Whatever we are doing at any point in time is generally accompanied by some form of private monologue that may or may not have to do with the task at hand. And if this self-talk is not present – while performing automatized actions (driving, brewing coffee in the morning, brushing your teeth, etc.) – it will be soon.

Even though we are well aware of the amount of work we put our brains through during the day, we don’t realize how much the content of our thought process impacts our behavior. It changes our course of action and, necessarily, the consequences that follow. An example: two different individuals are frying eggs for breakfast. Both of them are cracking one of the eggs and suddenly the yolk breaks.

  • Individual A: *inner monologue* dang it. What a way to start the day. This is bullsh*t.
  • Individual B: *inner monologue* well…scrambled eggs it is.

Both have experienced the same situation but they reacted differently to it, resulting in different emotional states. We all have A days and B days but the relevance of all this is that cognitive appraisal of a situation affects emotional management.

But let us take a step back for a quick second. Where do these thoughts come from? Are they all automatic or do I get to control them? A little bit of both – as usual – but ultimately we get to create what we think. Once we realize we’re not enslaved by our automatic thoughts and that we get to mold them however we want, we become active agents in our emotional processing.  I can put whatever I want into my thoughts: information, instructions, motivational quotes and so on.

What impact can self-talk have on sports performance?

Self-talk has been conceptualized as «a multidimensional phenomenon concerned with athletes’ verbalizations that are addressed to themselves» (Hardy, Hall & Hardy, 2005). They are mainly used to manage ones feelings, perceptions and cognitions while performing a certain task. Literature has suggested these verbalizations can enhance performance. The first studies – conducted during the late 80s – aimed to investigate the effects of self-talk on performance. Results determined that positive self-instruction could improve task performance in different sports (skiing, tennis or dart-throwing). One particular study proved that the use of specific verbal cues in elite 100-m sprinters allowed a significant reduction in times compared to baseline measures.

But not only has inner monologue proven its worth regarding performance; it’s also helpful in the learning process. Self-instruction verbal cues have been useful for athletes when learning new movements or in later stages of skill acquisition; it’s been proven in sports that require fine motor skills such as precision or hand-eye coordination (golf, basketball, etc.)

The matching hypothesis

inner dialogue

There are two types of self-talk: instructional and motivational. The first kind, involves verbal cues that guide us through a certain process; the latter refers to inner speech that is meant to give us an extra push.

Which one is best? Science says that personal preferences are most effective. We can say em out loud or privately, use instructions or motivational phrases; and select our own cues or have them assigned to us. So it all depends. But it also changes according to the activity at hand. For example, throwing darts and long distance running are two very different tasks. They involve different muscular groups and pathways in our central nervous system. Consequently, they might call for specific verbal cues. Science suggests instructional self-talk could be more useful when performing a task that requires timing and precision – such as dart-throwing -. On the other hand, tasks that require pure grit and strength (long-distance running), could pair better with motivational inner speech.

This is called the «matching hypothesis» and it has been studied on long-distance runners. Results confirmed that motivational private speech helped reduce rate of perceived exertion (as would psychostimulants, aerobic training or a nutrition plan), resulting in an improvement in performance. So what this means is that (surprise, surprise) training our cognitive processing is just as effective as training the physical aspect.

What about negative self-talk?

Carver & Scheier (1988) researched the effects of negative self-talk on sports performance and investigated its relationship with precompetitive anxiety and competition. They proposed a model which suggested that the athlete establishes goals and monitors their performance based on achievement. If the competition is not going well and the athlete detects this discrepancy between their goals and intended behavior, negative self-talk kicks in. In summary: the progress of competition influences the athletes’ thought content.

inner dialogue
Relationship between anxiety, performance and negative self-talk.

But we need to think of it as a cycle. Cognitive precompetitive anxiety – expressed in the form of worry and self-doubt – can predict poor performance; poor performance will necessarily lead to goal discrepancies and this perceived failure will provoke negative self-talk. This cycle sets the tone for future competitive events because it establishes a pattern in our cognitive processing. Unknowingly, the athlete has perpetuated a thought process that will hinder progress and performance in the future.

«Attention is a funnel for emotions» – Marta Redondo, PhD.

As we’ve seen so far, self-talk casts a large shadow when it comes to performance. We tend to forget the impact our thoughts have on our behavior, how they take hold of our attention and mediate our emotional responses. In college, a very special teacher once said that «attention is a funnel for emotions, an amplifier». If we focus on negative self-talk and our feelings of worry and self-doubt, our behavior will suffer the consequences and our performance won’t get any better. So, take matters into your own hands!

  • If the workout includes a heavy front squat and you tend to lose tension under heavy loads, you might experience fear – trade that fear with self-instruction («high elbows», «chest up») or motivational self-talk («push through it»)
  • If you’ve been practicing kipping pull-ups for the longest and you still don’t get the hang of it, this experience might lead you to doubt yourself – change that doubt with instructions («squeeze glutes», «pull down on the bar») or motivation («you got this»; «be patient»)
  • If today’s class includes a 1RM Snatch, you’ve built up to your personal best but can’t seem to hit it after several attempts, don’t let negative self-talk get in the way. Find the problem and correct it. Is it the set-up? Or is it an early arm bend? Maybe all you need is belief. Talk yourself through it and give your attentional resources something productive to work with!

It’s all good and well to measure your daily food intake, run 800 m sprints on the track field and practice your snatch on a day to day basis; but, you should also spend some time training your self-talk. Choose the right verbal cues. Adapt your perception to the situation at hand and don’t ruminate on unforeseen circumstances in competition or in training. Motivate yourself when you need that extra push. Instruct yourself when you are not performing a movement correctly.  If you do, you’ll manage your emotions more efficiently and, indirectly, you’ll maximize your performance.

Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1988). A control-process perspective on anxiety. Anxiety Research, 1, M-21

Blanchfield, A. W., Hardy, J., De Morree, H. M., Staiano, W., & Marcora, S. M. (2014). Talking yourself out of exhaustion: the effects of self-talk on endurance performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 46(5), 998-1007.⁣

Hardy, J. and Oliver, E.J. (2014) «Self-talk, positive thinking, and thought stopping», in Encyclopedia of sport and exercise psychology. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.

Hatzigeorgiadis, A., & Biddle, S. J. (2008). Negative self-talk during sport performance: relationships with pre-competition anxiety and goal-performance discrepancies. Journal of Sport Behavior, 31(3). Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Galanis, E., & Theodorakis, Y. (2011). Self-talk and sports performance: A meta-analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(4), 348-356.

Desiree Mejia-Naranjo 0 Comentarios