estilo atribucional
El fracaso: ¿por qué unos crecen y otros se hunden?

En el “Deporte del Fitness” hemos podido ser testigos de incontables historias de superación. Rich Froning debe su éxito en CrossFit y en la vida a una escalada de cuerda en los Games de 2010. Tia-Clair Toomey se recuperó de una derrota en 2016 y ha pasado a convertirse en la mujer más dominante de la historia con tres oros consecutivos (2017, 2018 y 2019).

Pero, pese a que estos atletas han incrementado sus niveles de rendimiento tras un gran fracaso, otros han sido incapaces de replicar estas historias de éxito. Así pues, surge la pregunta: ¿qué mecanismos psicológicos subyacen en la recuperación tras el fracaso?

La teoría del estilo atribucional

La teoría del estilo atribucional (Abramson, Seligman y Teasdale, 1984) refleja el proceso a través del cual un individuo explica la causalidad de los eventos. Se compone de tres factores – cognitivo, motivacional y emocional – y se construye a partir de tres dimensiones: estabilidad, especificidad e internalidad.

  • Estable-inestable: una atribución estable viene a decir que las consecuencias – ya sean positivas o negativas – se consideran crónica. Por otra parte, una atribución inestable sólo aplica a la situación presente.
  • Específico-global: una atribución global implica que estas consecuencias ocurrirán en otras situaciones, mientras que una atribución específica se refiere únicamente al evento original.
  • Internoexterno: en esta dimensión el individuo determina si la causalidad del evento es dependiente de sus propias habilidades o si atribuyen la causa a factores externos (suerte, evaluadores externos, dificultad de la tarea, etc.)

Estas tres dimensiones interactúan entre sí y pueden dar lugar a una amplia variedad de posibilidades. Sin embargo, parece que hay una tendencia natural en cada uno de nosotros que tiene que ver con el optimismo y el pesimismo. Como vimos en otro artículo, ambos rasgos tienen sus propias consecuencias y, en relación con el estilo atribucional, podemos distinguir entre dos estilos explicativos completamente opuestos:

  • Estilo explicativo pesimista: estos individuos explican los eventos negativos como estables, globales e internos (“esto me pasa siempre, con todo y es mi culpa”). Los eventos positivos, en cambio, son considerados como inestables, específicos
    y externos
    (“tuve suerte esta vez y no volverá a pasar”).

  • Estilo explicativo optimista: los eventos negativos se consideran inestables, específicos y externos (“el juez me estaba quitando repes como un maníaco”) mientras que los eventos positivos son considerados estables, globales e internos (“mi rendimiento siempre ha sido muy sólido y consistente”).

Según algunos autores (Seligman, Nolen-Hoeksema & Thornton, 1990; Martin-Krumm et. al, 2003) el estilo atribucional podría tener un rol mediador en la recuperación tras un fracaso. Deportistas con un perfil pesimista tienden a rendir incluso peor tras una experiencia de fracaso. Esto no ocurre en aquellos atletas más optimistas y podría ser porque al mantener elevadas sus expectativas de éxito, se “protegen” de ver afectado su rendimiento deportivo en el futuro.

Cómo afectan estas atribuciones a los atletas

estilo atribucional
Josh Bridges se ha encontrando ante múltiples situaciones de fracaso y ha salido reforzado de todas ellas.
  • Lesiones deportivas: en términos de rehabilitación y regreso a la actividad deportiva, ambos estilos atribucionales pueden tener consecuencias negativas. El atleta pesimista puede sufrir en la adherencia al tratamiento mientras que el atleta optimista puede hacer demasiado para recuperarse lo antes posible.

  • Adquisición de nuevas habilidades: dominar un conjunto de habilidades deportivas específicas es un objetivo prioritario para cualquier atleta. Anticipar un resultado negativo puede enlentecer el proceso de aprendizaje más de lo necesario; por otro lado, ser optimista puede llevar al atleta a ir demasiado rápido y saltarse los fundamentos (algo que en CrossFit puede penalizarte a largo plazo).

  • Rendimiento en competición: en este contexto, sólo existen dos consecuencias posibles – victoria o derrota – y el estilo atribucional determinará cómo afrontan sus resultados y ejercerá una gran influencia sobre su rendimiento durante la competición presente y las que están por venir.

Cómo gestionar un estilo atribucional

Como coaches

estilo atribucional
Max El-Hag (@maxelhag) es el fundador de Training Think Tank y entrena a atletas de alto nivel, haciendo especial hincapié en las habilidades mentales para la competición.

Los entrenadores juegan un papel muy interesante en la gestión de estilos explicativos porque ocurre que éstos suelen ser desconocidos para los individuos… hasta que alguien se lo hace ver. Como coaches, debemos aprender cómo atribuyen causalidad nuestros atletas a sus eventos vitales y usar esa información. La forma más fácil de identificar un estilo atribucional es monitorizar la expectativa de éxito ante una tarea y, después, hacer que expliquen el fallo o el éxito en la ejecución de dicha tarea. Una vez determinado su estilo atribucional, se pone a prueba con diferentes situaciones:

  • Manipulando las variables de un ciclo de entrenamiento para generar éxito o fracaso deliberadamente. Si nuestro atleta suele internalizar el fracaso, intentaremos provocar situaciones de éxito y le guiaremos para que lo interprete como el resultado de su rendimiento. Pero también deberemos proponer tareas donde haya un feedback negativo pese a que lo haya ejecutado a la perfección. ¿Por qué? Para que entienda que habrá veces en las que haga todo bien pero los objetivos no se cumplan.

  • Que tu atleta analice el rendimiento de otro deportista. Te sorprendería lo fácil que es identificar defectos y virtudes en otros y ésta es una herramienta muy eficaz para enseñar a tu deportista a detectar errores atribucionales. Incluso puedes “disfrazar” la propia experiencia del atleta como un caso hipotético y, una vez que lo analice, revelas la auténtica identidad del deportista analizado.

  • Enseñar a tu deportista a generar atribuciones alternativas. Tras una sesión de entrenamiento o una competición importante, haz que el atleta explique sus resultados de todas las maneras posibles. Después, que encuentren evidencias que fundamenten cada teoría (por ejemplo, “si tan malo eres en el CrossFit, ¿cómo pudiste ser el primero en España en aquel entrenamiento del Open?”; “¿fue el juez el que iba a por ti o simplemente no estabas rompiendo el paralelo en la sentadilla?).

Como atletas

Recuerda que nuestros cerebros son dinámicos y, aunque vienen con unos valores de fábrica, responden muy bien a nuestras interacciones con el entorno. Identifica tu estilo atribucional y aprécialo como tal porque todos tienen sus ventajas; pero no vayas a pensar que son las Tablas de la Ley.  

Justo el otro día fui testigo de algo increíble. Una de las personas más pesimistas que conozco está esperando un diagnóstico para una reciente lesión de rodilla. En 2018 se rompió el LCA, los ligamentos laterales y el menisco externo de la otra rodilla y esto la destrozó psicológicamente por lo que sus experiencias pasadas no ayudan. Cuando hablé con ella, esperaba que me detallara las más sombrías de las expectativas y para mi sorpresa me dijo: “¿Sabes qué? Esta vez no voy a ser pesimista. Voy a pensar en positivo y si me equivoco, pues ya veré qué hacer entonces”.

En resumen: eres un agente ACTIVO en esta vida loca. Desempeña ese papel con cabeza.












- Abramson, L.Y., Seligman, M.E., & Teasdale, J.D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: critique and reformulation. Journal of abnormal psychology87(1), 49.
- Martin-Krumm, C.P., Sarrazin, P.G., Peterson, C., & Famose, J. P. (2003). Explanatory style and resilience after sports failure. Personality and individual differences35(7), 1685-1695.
- Seligman, M.E., Abramson, L.Y., Semmel, A., & von Baeyer, C. (1979). Depressive attributional style. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88(3), 242–247.
- Seligman, M.E., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Thornton, K.M., & Thornton, N. (1990). Explanatory style as a mechanism of disappointing athletic performance. Psychological Science, 1, 143-146.
estilo atribucional
Recovery from failure: rebound or crash and burn?

In the “Sport of Fitness” we’ve been lucky enough to witness epic comeback stories. Rich Froning owes his success in CrossFit and in life to that rope climb in 2010. Tia-Clair Toomey bounced back from losing in 2016 and became the most dominant female athlete with three consecutive titles of “Fittest Woman on Earth” (2017, 2018 and 2019).

But although some athletes have increased their performance levels after a major setback, others haven’t been able to replicate those success stories. So, the question remains: which underlying psychological mechanisms explain recovery from failure?

The attributional style theory

The attributional style theory (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1984) reflects the process through which an individual determines the causality of events. It entails three components – cognitive, motivational and emotional – and considers three dimensions: stability, specificity and internality.

  • Stable-unstable: a stable attribution means the outcome (whether positive or negative) is chronic. Meanwhile, an unstable attribution applies only to the situation at hand.
  • Specific-global: “A global attribution implies that helplessness will occur across situations, whereas a specific attribution implies helplessness only in the original situation” (Abramson, Seligman & Teasdale, 1984).
  • Internal-external: this determines whether or not the individual considers the outcome as dependent on their own abilities or they attribute cause to external factors (luck, external evaluators, task difficulty, etc.)

These three dimensions interact with each other and result in a great variety of possibilities. However, there is a natural tendency we seem to follow and it has to do with optimism and pessimism. As we saw in another article, both have their own consequences and in relation to the attributional theory, we can distinguish between two completely opposite explanatory styles:

  • Pessimistic explanatory style: these individuals explain bad events as stable, global and internal, meaning (“they’ll go on forever, affect everything and are all my fault”). Good events, on the other hand, are considered unstable, specific and external (“I got lucky this one time and it won’t happen again”).
  • Optimistic explanatory style: bad events are deemed unstable, specific and external (“My judge in that event was no-repping the life out of me”) while good events are considered stable, global and internal (“My training is solid and my performance has been consistent throughout the competition”).

Explanatory style is considered by some authors as an active mediator in recovery from failure (Seligman, Nolen-Hoeksema & Thornton, 1990; Martin-Krumm et. al, 2003). Athletes with a pessimistic profile tend to perform even worse after experiencing failure than those who are deemed more optimistic. It would appear that maintaining higher expectations of success kind of act as “protection” for performances in the future.

How can these attributions affect athletes?

attributional style
Josh Bridges has dealt with a fair share of setbacks; and he hasn’t backed down once.
  • Sport-related injuries: in terms of rehabilitation, both attributional styles can have negative consequences. The pessimistic athlete may have trouble adhering to their rehab treatment while the optimistic athlete may do too much in efforts to recover faster.
  • Acquisition of new skills: mastery of a sport-specific skill set is a primary goal for any athlete. Expecting a negative outcome can enlengthen the learning process way more than needed; on the other hand, being optimistic may lead an athlete to go too fast and skip the basics (which in CrossFit can penalize you in the long run).
  • Performance in competition: in this context, win-lose situations are a given. An athlete’s attributional style will determine how they cope with their results and will heavily influence their performance throughout the present competition and in the future.

What can we do to manage an attributional style?

As coaches

attributional style
Max El-Hag (@maxelhag) – founder of Training Think Tank – coaches top-level athletes dedicates a great deal of work to training their mindset.

Coaches play an interesting role in the management of explanatory styles because it so happens that these are usually unknown for the individual – unknown until someone points it out, that is -. As coaches we must first learn how our athletes attribute causality to the events surrounding them and then use that information.

The easiest way to identify an attributional style is to occasionally monitor the expectation of success prior to any given task and then have them explain their failure or success in said task. Then we can proceed to put their attributional styles to the test in different situations:

  • Manipulating the variables of a training cycle to generate deliberate success or failure. If we’re dealing with an athlete who internalizes failure on a general basis, we’ll try to set them up for success and have them acknowledge it as such. Also, we can give them negative feedback even if their performance is top-notch. Why? So they realize that although they did everything right, things can still go wrong.
  • Having the athlete analyze another athlete’s performance. You’d be surprised how easily one identifies faults and virtues in others and this is a great tool to show an athlete how to detect attributional errors. You can even “disguise” the athlete’s own experience as a hypothetical case and once they analyze it, you reveal the true athlete’s identity.
  • Teaching the athlete to generate alternative attributions. After a training session or an important competition, have the athlete explain in as many ways as possible the causality for their success or failure. After that, they must find evidence to support each theory (i.e., if you suck so much at CrossFit, how did you win that event at the Games?; was the judge really gunning for you or where you not getting deep enough in the squat?).

As athletes

Remember that our brains are dynamic and although they come with some heavy hardwire, they’re very reactive to our interactions with the environment. Embrace your explanatory styles for what they’re worth because they both have their advantages; but don’t for a second believe they’re set in stone.

Just the other day I witnessed something incredible. One of the most pessimistic individuals I know is on the brink of receiving a diagnosis for a recent knee injury. She already went through a torn ACL on her right knee which trashed her psychologically, so obviously her past experiences don’t help. I was waiting for her to detail the grimmest of expectations and she surprised me by saying: “you know what? I’m not going to be pessimistic this time. I’ll hope for the best and if I’m wrong, well, then I’ll see what to do then”.

Long story short: you’re an ACTIVE agent in this hell of a life. Make the best of it.

















- Abramson, L.Y., Seligman, M.E., & Teasdale, J.D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: critique and reformulation. Journal of abnormal psychology87(1), 49.
- Martin-Krumm, C.P., Sarrazin, P.G., Peterson, C., & Famose, J. P. (2003). Explanatory style and resilience after sports failure. Personality and individual differences35(7), 1685-1695.
- Seligman, M.E., Abramson, L.Y., Semmel, A., & von Baeyer, C. (1979). Depressive attributional style. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88(3), 242–247.
- Seligman, M.E., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Thornton, K.M., & Thornton, N. (1990). Explanatory style as a mechanism of disappointing athletic performance. Psychological Science, 1, 143-146.
obesity
Fighting obesity in 10 steps

According to the WHO (2016) over 1.9 billion adults aged 18 or older suffer from obesity. These numbers reflect an even harsher reality once we consider that over half of these individuals have difficulties adhering to their treatments (WHO, 2010).

The ability to introduce behavioral changes as part of a medical treatment is called “therapeutic adherence”. In the case of obesity, this usually involves diet, exercise and medication along with modification of thoughts, actions and attitudes related to food intake (Casas, Salvador & Viñals, 2008; Marcos, Rodríguez, Pérez & Caballero, 2009; & García-Cedillo et. al, 2017).

Why write this article?

CrossFit has joined the battle against chronic disease and done a great deal of work in this sense. As a training methodology, it’s demonstrated its utility helping individuals transit to a healthier lifestyle; but it doesn’t stop there. CrossFit has also dedicated many efforts to providing the community with relevant health-related information.

However great these efforts are, they continue to neglect the psychological aspect which has proven to be the key to developing and maintaining many health issues (including obesity). That’s why I’ve developed this scientific-based decalogue. Its purpose is to give individuals general guidelines regarding the personal resources needed to win the battle against obesity.

Decalogue for commitment

1 I’ll surround myself with others in my situation

Having a support system where there’s a common goal has many benefits (García-Cedillo et. al, 2017): you can identify with your partners and share experiences; you can learn and provide useful information (grocery shopping, go-to progression drills for certain movements, etc.); it builds an empathetic space where one feels safe to express their emotions, the obstacles they sometime face, etc.; and, lastly, seeing others progress will increase your motivation to do the same.

2 I’ll remember this is a long process

And when I say long, I really mean it. It won’t happen overnight and it’ll take more than just a couple of months. Unlearning behavioral and thought patterns is constant work and this usually means that the path is ridden with obstacles and mishaps. Therefore, our personal resources must be ready to step in when the road gets tough. But as they say: “when the going gets tough, the tough get going”.

3 I’ll control my environment

Stimular control is a behavioral technique that works wonders in the context of lifestyle modification (Villarreal et. al, 2012) and it’s based on a very “human” instinct which is “out of sight, out of mind”. Avoiding the tub of ice cream that’s sitting in the freezer waiting for us can be really hard… wouldn’t it be easier if it just weren’t there? 

But keeping them out of sight won’t work forever. It’s more like an initial safety net because another common theme in obesity programs is exposure to banned foods (Guisado & Vaz, 2001). Sooner or later we’ll be forced to coexist with our guilty foods and we’ll have to be able to say no to them without losing our cool.

4 I’ll make conscious decisions

Seemingly irrelevant decisions aren’t directly related to any unhealthy behaviors but they end up exposing us to the high-risk situations (Keegan, 2012). For example: unconsciously derailing from my original commute to pass by the coffee shop where they bake my favorite croissants for binging sessions. Coincidence? Not so much.

This isn’t something that happens consciously so the work has to be put in beforehand. We must dedicate the necessary amount of time to identify each and every one of these high-risk situations so we can learn how to avoid them.

5 I’ll learn more about myself

I wanted to avoid using the good ‘ol “love yourself”, so I’ll change it for more operative terms such as self-esteem, self-understanding and perception of self-efficacy. There are several ways through which we can boost our perceived self-efficacy and self-esteem:

  • Setting myself up for success – for self-reinforcement purposes
  • Identifying personal strengths
  • Working on my weaknesses

6 I’ll manage my emotions

Travis Williams (@travismfwilliams) went from a sedentary lifestyle to multiple appearances at the CrossFit Games.

Two of the most common precipitating factors for relapses are stressful situations and negative affect – anger, fear and sadness –. Moving, work-related stress, economic struggles, breakups, etc. can trigger feelings of sadness, guilt or helplessness which are no bueno (as we know).

Avoiding stress is not an option so all we have left is working on our emotional management strategies: activation of adequate coping strategies (seeking information, social support, etc.), emotional expression, and/or reappraisal of the situation (is it under my control or not?). Each strategy serves its own purpose and will be useful in certain situations.

7 I won’t judge myself

Fighting obesity necessarily means there will be days when you avoid the box or abandon your diet but don’t go ahead and use it as an excuse to give up on yourself. If there’s one thing I do believe in is that failure can be used as a learning experience; and this I like to call the “functional relapse”.

The road to self-understanding is built on trial and error. Identify and analyze the processes that lead you to give up on your CrossFit class that day so you can learn how to avoid them in the future. ¡Don’t punish yourself! Go for a functional relapse instead.

8 I’ll keep track of my progress

Luckily, self-tracking is very celebrated in the CrossFit community because only “if you can’t measure it, you can’t improve it”. Jot down your first RMs, your max set of pull-ups and your weight history so you can compare a few months down the road.

Watching your new-self beat the crap out of previous versions of yourself will generate those successful situations I was talking about to improve perceived self-efficacy. And if you want to share your success with your support system or on social media, go ahead! Social reinforcement is very powerful and will also boost your self-esteem.

9 I’ll doubt everything

If you’re new to this blog I’ll have you know I’m a big fan of cognitive restructuring, which is quite relevant in this field as well. I must learn to identify negative automatic thoughts and determine their level of certainty. I must also look out for irrational beliefs in relation to myself, my environment or my unhealthy behaviors to adjust them to reality (Lafuente, 2012).

10 I’ll know my WHY

This one’s the ultimate gamechanger when fighting obesity and, although I put it last, I’d start here because it’ll keep you on track when you least feel like it. Reciting all those evil consequences you’ve heard from parents, friends or doctors won’t do unless you’re actually concerned about it. Look deep down and find the real reason you’re willing to sacrifice.

Keep it close everyday because when you feel like giving up you’ll need to activate it. Make sure it’s strong enough to fight off any excuse or obstacle but, most of all, take care of it! Don’t let anybody tell you if it’s valid or not, all you need is for it to work and that’s something only you get to decide.















Casas, P.,Salvador, J., & Viñals, M. (2008). Tratamiento del sobrepeso y obesidad en la empresa mediante terapia psicológica grupal y control médico y dietético. Archivos de Prevención de riesgos laborales, 11(4), 188-195.

- García-Cedillo, I., Guillén, Y. C., Ramírez, A. M., & Sánchez-Armáss, O.(2017). Promoción de la adherencia terapéutica de mujeres con obesidad mediante psicoeducación. Psychologia. Avances de la disciplina,11(1), 13-23.

- Guisado, J. A., & Vaz, F. J. (2001). Aspectos clínicos del trastorno por atracón" binge eating disorder". Revista de la asociación española de Neuropsiquiatría, (77), 27-32.

- Keegan, E. (2012). Perspectiva cognitivo-conductual del abuso de
sustancias. Intersecciones Psicológicas3, 5-8.

- Lafuente, M. D. (2012). Tratamiento cognitivo conductual de la
obesidad. Trastornos de la conducta alimentaria, (14), 1490-1504.

- Marcos, L. Rodríguez, L. Pérez, M., & Caballero, M. (2009). Tratamiento de mujeres con sobrepeso y obesidad. Trastornos de la Conducta Alimentaria, 7, 720-732

- Mata, D. Y. C., Sagarduy, J. L. Y., Zárraga, J. L. M. Y., & López, J. A. P. (2015). Adherencia al tratamiento en pacientes hipertensos con sobrepeso u obesidad (Adherence to Treatment in Hipertensive Patients with Overweight or Obesity). International
journal of psychology and psychological therapy15(1), 377-386.

- Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1993). Etiology of binge eating:
Psychological mechanisms.

- Villarreal, T., Garza, T., Gutiérrez, R., Méndez, R., & Ramírez, J. M.(2012). Intervención psicoeducativa en el tratamiento de la obesidad en un centro de salud de Nuevo León, México. Atención Familiar,19(4), 90-93.